Post by maddogblues on Jul 14, 2009 10:14:03 GMT -5
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Vishnu: Cosmic Magnification Of The Divine Being
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Lord Vishnu, the central figure of the Brahmanical Gods-Trio and
the most widely worshipped divinity of Indian masses, far beyond a
sanctum-deity or temple-idol, manifests cosmos scaling it from its
beginning to end and every inch of its space. In him is contained
the creation, its expanse, action, inaction, matter, spirit,
dynamism, inertia, growth, stagnation, virtues, vices, order,
chaos, light, darkness, evolution, dissolution, life, its
termination, illusions, all that exists, has ever existed or shall
ever exist, as also that which is beyond existence. A
personalized God, Vishnu is essentially the vision of abstraction.
Not so much the manifest cosmos, he manifests its unseen,
unmanifest inner source by which it evolves out of the debris of
dissolution, by which it sustains, by which it again dissolves. He
manifests the cycle, composition and decomposition, every
transformation, and every form and non-form.
Not an overseer presiding over the cycle from beyond, Vishnu is
the cycle's inherent part. He dissolves to evolve again, perhaps
to equip him with fresh energies, or to re-assure that the cycle
which he manifests is ultimate and he himself is not beyond it.
Two myths, often perceived as mutually contradicting, one of his
emergence as a child on a fig leaf afloat the post-deluge oceanic
waters, and the other, perceiving him as reclining on serpent
Shesh in Kshirasagara, are symbolic extension of this cosmic
process of which Vishnu is the axis.
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As the former myth has it, after the Great Deluge subsides, all
around are dark unfathomable waters with immeasurable expanse.
Vishnu, just a child, emerges afloat on a fig leaf, something
symbolic of nothingness, or comprising just a nominal support. The
myth discovers Vishnu in child, as the child alone has
possibilities of growing, the essence of Vishnu's being. It sets
him in darkness and over immeasurable seas, as it is only the
darkness that contains the light in its womb and might release it,
and, it is the immeasurable out of which the measured spaces are
carved. Vishnu is not the creator but he only grows and expands
and there-from emerge the manifest and the unmanifest worlds.
And, then there is the other myth. Vishnu, now fully grown-up,
reclines in Kshirasagara - the ocean of milk, on the coils of
serpent Shesh unfurling its hoods over him. Now Shri or Lakshmi,
his spouse, is in attendance and from his navel rises the lotus.
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Atop the lotus emerges Brahma with water-pot in one hand, Veda in
another, rosary in the third, and the fourth being held in
varada - the posture of benevolence, a total transformation of the
myth which perceives Vishnu as child. The dark waters of the child
Vishnu's myth transform into the grown-up Vishnu's ocean of milk
abounding in unique radiance. The light pervades the darkness. Out
of the immeasurable expanse are carved the measured length and
width which the serpent Shesh, symbolic of life and representing
the earth, manifests. Vishnu lying on it and holding it
canopy-like above him pervades it. Lotus, symbolic of three cosmic
regions - the earth, the sky and the ocean, is Vishnu's offshoot,
and so is Brahma emerging to define them in terms of creation.
Brahma defined life, which the water contained in the pot
symbolized; good and benevolence which pre-empted the course of
life and regulated the creation; jnana - knowledge, which Veda in
his hand symbolized; and, devotion, which the rosary in his other
hand represented. Shri, Vishnu's spouse, manifests his will to let
it sustain and lead it to abundance.
Conjointly, the two myths illustrate the Vaishnava theory of
Vishnu's emergence and growth.
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As the scriptural tradition has it, after every 60 crore, 18 lac,
34 thousand and 752 years of human calendar Vishnu disappears and
then there is desolation and deep eternal silence for 30 crore, 9
lacs, 17 thousand and 376 years before he re-emerges and grows,
and along with emerges the entire creation - the manifest as also
the unmanifest. In Vedic perception Vishnu is a continuum, and in
Puranic, a plurality. The term 'vishnu' is not an incidental catch
for his name. 'Vish', the Sanskrit root out of which the term
'vishnu' developed, means 'vyapana', that is, to expand and
pervade. Thus, Vishnu is one whose ultimate nature is 'vyapana'.
Hence, Vishnu is not a mere sanctum deity or worshippers' idol but
also a deep cosmo-metaphysical principle that defines on one hand
the principle of evolution, and on the other, manifests the
Rig-Vedic theory of God's oneness and unity of the cosmos. Some
scholars contemplate 'vish' as suggestive of one who is
'incessantly in act'. Incessant is only the growth. Hence growth
alone is the incessant act. Vishnu, who is the growth, and thus
the incessant act and the essential nature of all things, is
inherent in all things, manifest or unmanifest, and is their life.
When Vishnu withdraws, the cosmos drops and perishes like the dead
mass. It is thus that in the Great Trinity - the three aspected
manifestation of the Formless God, Vishnu represents sustenance or
preservation, and is the core of cosmic order.
Vishnu In Vedic Literature
The Vedas abound in strange mysticism and such mysticism is far
deeper in case of Vishnu. The Rig-Veda assigns to Vishnu a status
secondary to other gods, specially, Indra - the god of rains,
Varuna - the god of oceans, Agni- the god of fire, Surya - the
Sun-god, among others. Just five of the Rig-Vedic Suktas - hymns,
are devoted to Vishnu, and in these too, he has not been
attributed the status of an independent being. The Suktas do not
recount any of his exploits, nor his role. The Rig-Veda perceives
him just as another form of Surya assisting Indra - obviously a
deity subsidiary to both. However, it is in such Rig-Vedic
perception that the real mystique of Vishnu's being lies. While
the other Rig-Vedic gods, such as Surya or Agni, seek to deify
nature's corresponding entities, or represent, as do Varuna or
Indra, some tangible aspect of nature, or even Brahman - the
Creator, Vak - Speech, or Ushas - Dawn, representing some aspect
of cosmic activity, Vishnu is a god by conception with no
specificity of any kind. He has not been linked with any aspect of
the universe, manifest or unmanifest. The Rig-Veda conceives him
as a youth with as massive a build as pervaded the entire cosmos.
It perceives Ushas also as a youthful maid with unique luster but
nonetheless it also links her with one of time-cycle's phenomenal
phases, which is the sun-rise.
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The Rig-Veda does not do so in case of Vishnu. It does not link
him with any specific aspect of nature, the tangible in the least,
or assigns to him any specific role or phenomenalism.
Thus, unlike any other god of Vedic Order, Vishnu, even if a
subsidiary god, is more or less an abstract concept, not
corresponding to an aspect of materially or visually existing
world. He is the only divinity whom the Rig-Veda seeks to
personalize. The Rig-Veda uses for him terms like 'urugaya' -
someone with long strides, 'urukrama' - someone with wide steps,
'tri-pada' - someone with three steps, that is, it perceives
Vishnu as a massive-bodied youth capable of covering the entire
space, width-wise and length-wise, in just three steps. At another
place the Rig-Veda acclaims that he spans the entire universe with
three strides, with two of which he covers the visible space, and
with the third, which the Rig-Veda designates as 'Parama-pada',
the space to which human eye does not have access. Thus, whatever
the Rig-Vedic perception, Vishnu pervades all spaces, the 'seen'
and the 'unseen'. The Vedas perceived some unmanifest levels also
of other gods, especially of Agni that exists on a plane to which
the human mind does not have access. But, such super-existence
apart, the Rig-Veda weaves the veil of mysticism only around
Vishnu, not barring the human mind from reaching it but rather
allowing it to lift the veil and develop its own concept of him.
Vishnu In Later Vedic Literature
Hence, it is not strange that in later Vedic literature -
Samhitas, Brahmins and Upanishads, this subsidiary god of the
Rig-Veda emerges as the most powerful divinity of the Vedic
pantheon. The Shatpatha Brahman (14.1.1) illustrates through a
myth how Vishnu attained such superior position. Once all gods
performed a yajna stipulating that whoever accomplished it first
would have supremacy over all other gods. Vishnu did it and was
worshipped by all as the supreme of all gods. Tetreya Aranyaka
(5.1. 1-7) gives to the myth of his supremacy a different
dimension. It narrates that once Vishnu's bow broke and with it
broke his head. This broken head, with enormous lustre, took the
form of the sun. Later, Ashwins - a class of celestial beings,
re-planted this broken head on his torso. Thereafter Vishnu
emerged as the supreme master of all three worlds. Shatpatha and
Etareya Brahmans (1.2.5 and 6.15) recount further how Vishnu
rescued all gods from demons and emerged as their natural
superior. Once demons defeated gods and occupied their habitation,
the world. The demons began breaking the land in fragments. This
endangered its very existence. Gods approached Vishnu for setting
the world free from demons. Vishnu transformed into a dwarf -
Vamana, and went to the demon king. He asked the demon king for a
piece of land measuring just three steps. When the prayer was
granted, Vishnu magnified his form into cosmic dimensions so much
so that in three steps he measured not merely the three worlds but
also the Vedas and Vak, that is, all known and spoken. The Puranas
modified the legend a little. The Vamana, a Brahmin, spanned in
his cosmic magnification all three worlds in two steps and with
the third pushed the demon king into the nether world. The Puranas
designated this form of Vishnu as Vishnu-kranta, Tri-Vikram or
Vikranta. This is one of his most widely represented forms in early sculptures.
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Whatever Vishnu's form in these later texts, the Rig-Veda
contained the initial roots of such forms. Except Vishnu, all
other gods that the Vedas personalized represented one of the
manifest forms of nature, the sun, fire, wind, rain etc. Such
personalization was unnatural and unconvincing, for one might
perceive some kind of divinity in these forms of nature but not
the face of man in any of them. On the contrary, personalization
of Vishnu was more natural and convincing; obviously because the
Vedas did not ever identify him with an otherwise manifest form.
Rather, a concept of mind as he was, the Vedas, the Rig-Veda in
particular, chose to visualize him in a human form. The Rig-Vedic
mysticism begins from here. It talks of Vishnu as one would talk
of a man but at the same time allows him to walk out of the man's
frame and vests in him unique divinity. As for Vishnu, he
sometimes appears to be, but at other time, one beyond being, one
beyond the entire manifest world.
This shift from the abstract or a nature-manifesting solar deity
to one perceived anthropomorphically was effected partly out of
the efforts of concretizing the Rig-Vedic mysticism and partly
being necessitated by the Vedic worship-cult involving yajna as an
essential aspect of day's routine that had become by now quite methodical.
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An anthropomorphic deity was better suited for presiding over such
yajnas. This seems to have effected the shift from the solar god
to a yajna-deity. Subordinated to Vishnu other Vedic gods did not
have their prior status. They were sometimes yet personalized but
either as subsidiary deities or as Dikpalas - guardians of
directions, etc. Vishnu, other than Rudra-Shiva, was the only
major personal god of this era and ever after. Rudra-Shiva was a
god with wrathful nature worshipped mostly for preventing him from
inflicting his wrath. The massive-bodied Vishnu was contrarily
all-pervading and protective. Hence, in Vedic cult he soon had an
enormous presence and with it the Vedic worship had two separate
sects, the Shaivites and the Vaishnavite.
Vishnu's Puranic Transformation And Iconographic Vision In Indian Art
The Puranas pursued broadly the same line as the later Vedic texts
in regard to Vishnu's form and status in the pantheon. However,
while the Vedic mysticism was still the dominant spirit of later
Vedic texts it was largely missing in Puranas. Instead, in Puranas
he emerged with far greater divine aura combined with such
personal attributes - invincibility, stateliness, anatomy of a
warrior, appearance and grace of a king, which made him more the
supreme commander of the world rather than an abstract principle
manifest. Hundreds of hymns in these Puranic texts lauded not
merely his appearance - a robust build, oceanic blue complexion
and figural distinction, or divinity, magnificence, or lustre but
also his brilliant costume, precious jewels, special crown, and
celestial flowers that he wore. Despite that he was perceived as
possessing great majesty such as should the Lord of the world in
command of all cosmic regions and all elements and a multi-armed
anatomy, these texts brought to mind such personalized picture of
Vishnu as of one's next-door neighbor. Thus, the supreme monarch
but with great personal touch Vishnu emerged as the foremost
guardian and protector. This Vishnu was both, the benevolent
boon-giver and the supreme deity of yajna as also the slayer of
demons and the protector of the earth and its inhabitants. The
Devi Bhagavata acclaims Vishnu to have fought a thousand battles
against 'asuras' - demons. Not merely the supreme divinity, this
Vishnu was also the supreme model of life manifesting both, the
highest principles of faith and the brightest colors of culture.
This Puranic personalization of Vishnu gives to Indian art -
sculpture and painting, a uniform, elaborate and well defined
iconography. His anatomy and other aspects apart, Puranas also
associated with him some attributes, body-postures and gestures of
hands, all revealing some kind of symbolism or some of his related
mythical contexts. The two of his postures are more usual; one as
standing, and other as reclining. His standing posture with a
forward thrust has Vedic connotations. It is the Rig-Vedic form of
Vishnu as revealed in epithets like 'urugaya', 'urukrama' or
'tri-patha', already discussed before. This is the most usual form
of Vishnu's sanctum idols or votive iconography.
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The other posture relates to the myth representing him reclining
on the coils of serpent Shesh in the ocean of milk. In this form
he is Nara, the cosmic ocean which spread everywhere before the
creation of the universe. As he moves over these waters of cosmic
oceans he is Narayana, 'one who moves in water'.
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His seated postures are rare except sometimes as in his
manifestation as Yoga-Narayana, or in shrines like one at Badrinatha.
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His Tri-Vikram form, representing him with one of his legs shot
into the sky or onto the face of the demon king Bali, a
representation of the myth of spanning the universe in three
strides, has also been sculpted on temples' walls.
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Lintels of early Vishnu temples and sometimes even Shaiva, usually
carry the image of Vishnu riding his mount Garuda. In Dasavatara
panels on the door-frames of early temples too the Garudaruda -
Garuda-mounted Vishnu, is usually the central figure.
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He has been usually conceived with four arms, but sometimes also
with six or eight carrying in them various attributes - a conch,
lotus, mace, goad, disc, rod, sword, bow among others. Conch was a
later addition, which was included in his attributes after his
incarnation as Krishna he eliminated Shakhasura - the demon
seeking refuge in a conch. The usual gestures of his hands are
abhaya - fearlessness, and varada - benevolence. He has been
conceived and represented as blue complexioned wearing a yellow
antariya - unstitched length of textile, and rich lustrous jewels.
His towering gems-studded crown and a garland of fresh Parijata
flowers of celestial origin, worn down to ankles, are other
exclusive features of his iconography and hence of his identity.
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In his cosmic magnification - Vishva-rupa, Vishnu has a different
set of iconography. Vishva-rupa is only Vishnu's transform. Brahma
did not have such magnification. Himself being the cosmos
Vishva-rupa was irrelevant in Shiva's context. As the creation
sustains and prevails in Vishnu, his form is required to magnify
to assimilate in it the vision of the world.
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Vishnu's Incarnations And Transforms
Vishnu was initially a cosmic presence without a manifest form or
appearance. Hence, the seers, right from the Vedic days to the
days of Puranas, wove around him, on one hand, a form of his own,
and on the other, discovered in any being, a man or animal, which
they found containing Vishnu-like dimensional width and
magnanimity, a transform of Vishnu or his incarnation.
Transformation is a shift from one form to the other in the same
birth, while incarnation is a form attained in other birth.
Ordinarily, transform and incarnation are two different things but
in Vaishnava context both are largely identical. Vishnu enters
into another form but without subjecting himself to birth and
death. In some of the beings, such as the mythical Matsya - Great
Fish, Kurma - Tortoise, or Varaha - Boar, popularly revered as his
incarnations, Vishnu had merely an elemental presence. They were
only his 'anshavataras' - part-incarnations, each performing one
divine act having cosmic magnitude. Narsimha and Vamana, his two
other incarnations, were perhaps more decisively only his
transforms. Their related myths in the Shatpatha Brahman represent
just their emergence, neither their birth nor parentage. Mysticism
enshrouded the events of births also of his other incarnations,
Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Balarama, or Buddha. They had parents,
babyhood, growth, manhood and a full life and a chain of events
but their related myths, ambiguous as they are at least in regard
to the circumstances of their births, incline to suggest that
their emergence was hardly the outcome of a biological process.
Though the multiplicity of his incarnated forms, ranging from
animals to man, suggestive of Vishnu's elemental presence in all
things, has undertones of Rig-Vedic mysticism, the proper
incarnation cult has its beginning in Brahmans. At least three
forms, Vamana who redeemed the world from the demon Bali, Matsya,
the great fish that rescued Manu from high tides of the Great Deluge,
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and Varaha, boar, that dragged back the earth from deep waters and
rescued her, occur in these later Vedic texts.
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The Mahabharata identifies Vishnu as Krishna when he shows his
cosmic form to Arjuna. However, it is in Puranas that the theory
of incarnations fully explodes. Each of Vishnu-related Puranas
comes out with its own list of his incarnations, totaling in
thousands. However, these are two sets that have greater
unanimity. According to one tradition the number of his
incarnations is twenty-four, while under another, it is ten. His
Dasavatara - ten incarnations, comprise the theme of Indian art -
sculptures, at least since Gupta period in fifth-sixth century.
These ten incarnations are Matsya, Kurma, Varah, Narsimha, Vamana,
Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Balarama and Kalki.
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The Vishnu Purana and some other texts acclaim Buddha, not
Balarama, as his ninth incarnation. According to many texts,
Kalki, the tenth incarnation, has to incarnate in Kaliyuga, the
present eon. Around the end of this eon righteousness would turn
into unrighteousness, light, into darkness, good, into evil,
virtues, into vices, believers, into profanes, community of man,
into thieves and evil doers, and the faith in God would be lost.
Then Kalki would emerge riding the horse Devadatta - one given by
gods, and with this the Kaliyuga would end.
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However as Venkateshvara, Vishnu has at least one such form which
is not his incarnation.
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Vishnu's south Indian devotees consider Venkateshvara as Vishnu's
proto-form. Even if this position is unacceptable, Venkateshvara,
a manifestation of Vishnu, might be termed as his transform or
re-emergence. Vishnu is believed to have abandoned Baikuntha and
migrated to Tirumala, a hill-range in south India having serpent
Shesh-like form and hence designated as Sheshachala.
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The related myth is variously narrated. However, the one in the
Padma Purana is better known. As it has it, gods once fell into a
dispute for settling which they deputed sage Bhragu. For seeking
their guidance Bhragu went to Great Trio. Shiva, engaged in
amorous act with Parvati, did not pay attention to him. Brahma
behaved almost rudely, but Bhragu lost his temper when he found
Vishnu asleep. The angry sage hit him on his chest with his leg,
which left on it the impression of his foot that as Shrivatsa adds
another element in his iconography. Vishnu, instead of punishing
the sage, only apologized for being asleep. Lakshmi who was lying
on his side felt insulted and in fury abandoned Vishnu and his
Baikuntha. Unable to bear separation Vishnu also left Baikuntha
and migrated to Tirumala hill on the earth. After eons of
repentance and yearning one day Vishnu realized that like a lotus
Lakshmi was sprouting within him and thus the two were re-united.
Tirumala is thus Vishnu's only abode where he permanently settled
after he had abandoned Baikuntha, his heavenly abode. His presence
here is considered thus full and absolute.
Vishnu's Exploits
Except that he is one who spans the earth, known and unknown
spaces in three steps, the Rig-Veda does not recount any of his
exploits. With his transformation as the god of yajna his role
widens in later Vedic texts. Now also as Vamana, Matsya and Varaha
he indulges in more personalized kind of acts. In Puranas his form
is almost concretized and so his exploits against demons,
Hayagriva, Madhu and Kaitabha, Andhaka, Vritrasura, Nemi, Sumali,
Malyavan among others. He fights against mighty demons Madhu and
Kaitabha for ages before he is able to kill them.
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The myth of annihilation of Madhu and Kaitabha appeared first in
the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. Later, with a few variations,
it appeared in the Devi Bhagavata Purana. As goes the myth, after
the Great Deluge Mahavishnu lay asleep on the water's surface.
Long after from his navel grew a lotus, out of which subsequently
emerged Brahma. Staying in the lotus he engaged himself in
meditation and in reciting Vedas. Meanwhile some ear-wax emitted
from the ears of Mahavishnu and from it were born two demons,
named Madhu and Kaitabha. According to the Mahabharata, Madhu and
Kaitabha were born from two drops of water that Mahavishnu had
created in the lotus. One of the two drops was sweet like
Madhu -honey, and hence, Madhu, the name of the demon born of it.
He stood for Tamas - darkness, one of the three attributes of
cosmos. The other drop was hard. From this drop was born Kaitabha
representing Rajas - activity.
Born and grown up in water Madhu and Kaitabha had exceptional
power to walk on water's surface and under it, which had made them
arrogant and proud. They wondered how this big flood came into
being. One day, Devi appeared and taught them the 'Vagbija
mantra - hymn of the origin of logos. Reciting the hymn they
performed Devi's worship for a thousand years. Appeased by their
worship Devi appeared and told them to ask whatever they desired.
They wished that they should die in the manner they chose. The
wish was granted. Their arrogance now multiplied. One day, they
stole Brahma's Vedas and with them hid in the nether world. Brahma
went after them but tortured and frightened by them came back. He
went to Mahavishnu and sought his help in restoring Vedas.
Mahavishnu went to Madhu and Kaitabha but they refused to return
the scriptures. Mahavishnu raised arms against them but it yielded
no result. Under a strategy, when one fought with him the other
rested and thus they tired Mahavishnu who was battling
non-stopped. It continued for a thousand years. Finally, Devi
appeared and revealed that they would not be killed unless they
themselves disclosed the manner by which they could be killed.
Mahavishnu feigned to give up arms and lauded the demons for their
great valor. He told that he would grant them anything they
wished. As anticipated, the demons laughed and said that they were
superior to him and hence he should ask them whatever he wanted
from them. Mahavishnu instantly said that he wished to kill them
and asked them to grant this wish. With no other option left, they
granted his wish but with the condition that he could kill them
but not inside the water. Mahavishnu instantly expanded his thighs
so far that like earth they reached above water. The demons
expanded their bodies many more times leaving waters far below.
Vishnu expanded his thighs further, caught hold of the demons,
held them on his thighs and cut their throats with his disc.
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Mahavishnu likewise eliminated Hayagriva, the son of
Kashyapaprajapati by his demon wife Denu, for torturing good
people and destroying their yajnas, Anthaka, the notorious
minister of the demon king Mahisha, Vratasura, the son of
Prajapati Twasta born of his wrath, Sumali, the son of
Patalaravana, Malyavan, the son of demon Sukesha and brother of
Mali and Sumali, Nemi, the head of the demons of Nemi clan, and
Rahu, the notorious planet. Rahu was cut into two parts by
Mahavishnu with his disc. As the related myth has it, the
incessantly warring gods and demons once reached an accord under
which they agreed to churn ocean and discover nectar that the
ocean contained. After the nectar was found in the course of
churning the demons rushed to snatch it. Fearing that the world
would be destroyed if it fell into the hands of demons, gods were
reluctant to let it pass into their hands. And hence, a fearful
battle ensued for its custody. When arms did not yield result,
Vishnu resorted to other options. He transformed himself into
Mohini, the temptress. All demons rushed to obtain her. Meanwhile
gods disappeared with the pot of nectar, and just after them,
Mohini. They reached Baikuntha and to bar entry of any demon put
the Sun and the Moon on guard. However, Rahu in disguise succeeded
in entering. But, on being detected by Moon Mahavishnu discharged
on him his disc and cut him into two pieces.
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This article by Prof. P.C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet
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For Further Study
----------------------------------------
Rig-Veda Samhita - edited by F. Maxmuller; English translation by H. H. Wilson, Poona.
Shatpatha Brahmana - edited by Albert Waver, Leipzig, 1924.
Mahabharata - Gita Press, Gorakhpur; Critical Edition, Poona;
English translation by Pratap Chandra Rai, Calcutta.
Valmiki Ramayana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1976.
Padmapurana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1981
Brahmavaivartapurana - Hindi Sahitya Sammelana Prayaga, Bombay, 1935
Bhagavata Purana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1961.
Markandeya Purana (Devi-Mahatmya) - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1972
Vishnupurana - Bombay, 1889; Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1980.
Vishnudharmottarapurana - Bombay, 1912; English translation by
Priyabala Shah, Baroda, 1961
Etareya Brahman - Gita Press, Gorakhpur
Devi Bhagavata - Gita Press, Gorakhpur
Harivansha Purana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur
Dr. Daljeet and P. C. Jain - Indian Miniature Painting
- Krishna : Raga se Viraga Tak
Brajesh Krishna - The Art under the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Delhi
Suvira Jaiswal - Origins and Development of Vaishnavism
D. O. Flaherty - Hindu Myths
Marta Jakimowicz-Shah - Metamorphosis of Indian Gods
Veronica Ions - Indian Mythology
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Vishnu: Cosmic Magnification Of The Divine Being
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Lord Vishnu, the central figure of the Brahmanical Gods-Trio and
the most widely worshipped divinity of Indian masses, far beyond a
sanctum-deity or temple-idol, manifests cosmos scaling it from its
beginning to end and every inch of its space. In him is contained
the creation, its expanse, action, inaction, matter, spirit,
dynamism, inertia, growth, stagnation, virtues, vices, order,
chaos, light, darkness, evolution, dissolution, life, its
termination, illusions, all that exists, has ever existed or shall
ever exist, as also that which is beyond existence. A
personalized God, Vishnu is essentially the vision of abstraction.
Not so much the manifest cosmos, he manifests its unseen,
unmanifest inner source by which it evolves out of the debris of
dissolution, by which it sustains, by which it again dissolves. He
manifests the cycle, composition and decomposition, every
transformation, and every form and non-form.
Not an overseer presiding over the cycle from beyond, Vishnu is
the cycle's inherent part. He dissolves to evolve again, perhaps
to equip him with fresh energies, or to re-assure that the cycle
which he manifests is ultimate and he himself is not beyond it.
Two myths, often perceived as mutually contradicting, one of his
emergence as a child on a fig leaf afloat the post-deluge oceanic
waters, and the other, perceiving him as reclining on serpent
Shesh in Kshirasagara, are symbolic extension of this cosmic
process of which Vishnu is the axis.
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As the former myth has it, after the Great Deluge subsides, all
around are dark unfathomable waters with immeasurable expanse.
Vishnu, just a child, emerges afloat on a fig leaf, something
symbolic of nothingness, or comprising just a nominal support. The
myth discovers Vishnu in child, as the child alone has
possibilities of growing, the essence of Vishnu's being. It sets
him in darkness and over immeasurable seas, as it is only the
darkness that contains the light in its womb and might release it,
and, it is the immeasurable out of which the measured spaces are
carved. Vishnu is not the creator but he only grows and expands
and there-from emerge the manifest and the unmanifest worlds.
And, then there is the other myth. Vishnu, now fully grown-up,
reclines in Kshirasagara - the ocean of milk, on the coils of
serpent Shesh unfurling its hoods over him. Now Shri or Lakshmi,
his spouse, is in attendance and from his navel rises the lotus.
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Atop the lotus emerges Brahma with water-pot in one hand, Veda in
another, rosary in the third, and the fourth being held in
varada - the posture of benevolence, a total transformation of the
myth which perceives Vishnu as child. The dark waters of the child
Vishnu's myth transform into the grown-up Vishnu's ocean of milk
abounding in unique radiance. The light pervades the darkness. Out
of the immeasurable expanse are carved the measured length and
width which the serpent Shesh, symbolic of life and representing
the earth, manifests. Vishnu lying on it and holding it
canopy-like above him pervades it. Lotus, symbolic of three cosmic
regions - the earth, the sky and the ocean, is Vishnu's offshoot,
and so is Brahma emerging to define them in terms of creation.
Brahma defined life, which the water contained in the pot
symbolized; good and benevolence which pre-empted the course of
life and regulated the creation; jnana - knowledge, which Veda in
his hand symbolized; and, devotion, which the rosary in his other
hand represented. Shri, Vishnu's spouse, manifests his will to let
it sustain and lead it to abundance.
Conjointly, the two myths illustrate the Vaishnava theory of
Vishnu's emergence and growth.
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As the scriptural tradition has it, after every 60 crore, 18 lac,
34 thousand and 752 years of human calendar Vishnu disappears and
then there is desolation and deep eternal silence for 30 crore, 9
lacs, 17 thousand and 376 years before he re-emerges and grows,
and along with emerges the entire creation - the manifest as also
the unmanifest. In Vedic perception Vishnu is a continuum, and in
Puranic, a plurality. The term 'vishnu' is not an incidental catch
for his name. 'Vish', the Sanskrit root out of which the term
'vishnu' developed, means 'vyapana', that is, to expand and
pervade. Thus, Vishnu is one whose ultimate nature is 'vyapana'.
Hence, Vishnu is not a mere sanctum deity or worshippers' idol but
also a deep cosmo-metaphysical principle that defines on one hand
the principle of evolution, and on the other, manifests the
Rig-Vedic theory of God's oneness and unity of the cosmos. Some
scholars contemplate 'vish' as suggestive of one who is
'incessantly in act'. Incessant is only the growth. Hence growth
alone is the incessant act. Vishnu, who is the growth, and thus
the incessant act and the essential nature of all things, is
inherent in all things, manifest or unmanifest, and is their life.
When Vishnu withdraws, the cosmos drops and perishes like the dead
mass. It is thus that in the Great Trinity - the three aspected
manifestation of the Formless God, Vishnu represents sustenance or
preservation, and is the core of cosmic order.
Vishnu In Vedic Literature
The Vedas abound in strange mysticism and such mysticism is far
deeper in case of Vishnu. The Rig-Veda assigns to Vishnu a status
secondary to other gods, specially, Indra - the god of rains,
Varuna - the god of oceans, Agni- the god of fire, Surya - the
Sun-god, among others. Just five of the Rig-Vedic Suktas - hymns,
are devoted to Vishnu, and in these too, he has not been
attributed the status of an independent being. The Suktas do not
recount any of his exploits, nor his role. The Rig-Veda perceives
him just as another form of Surya assisting Indra - obviously a
deity subsidiary to both. However, it is in such Rig-Vedic
perception that the real mystique of Vishnu's being lies. While
the other Rig-Vedic gods, such as Surya or Agni, seek to deify
nature's corresponding entities, or represent, as do Varuna or
Indra, some tangible aspect of nature, or even Brahman - the
Creator, Vak - Speech, or Ushas - Dawn, representing some aspect
of cosmic activity, Vishnu is a god by conception with no
specificity of any kind. He has not been linked with any aspect of
the universe, manifest or unmanifest. The Rig-Veda conceives him
as a youth with as massive a build as pervaded the entire cosmos.
It perceives Ushas also as a youthful maid with unique luster but
nonetheless it also links her with one of time-cycle's phenomenal
phases, which is the sun-rise.
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The Rig-Veda does not do so in case of Vishnu. It does not link
him with any specific aspect of nature, the tangible in the least,
or assigns to him any specific role or phenomenalism.
Thus, unlike any other god of Vedic Order, Vishnu, even if a
subsidiary god, is more or less an abstract concept, not
corresponding to an aspect of materially or visually existing
world. He is the only divinity whom the Rig-Veda seeks to
personalize. The Rig-Veda uses for him terms like 'urugaya' -
someone with long strides, 'urukrama' - someone with wide steps,
'tri-pada' - someone with three steps, that is, it perceives
Vishnu as a massive-bodied youth capable of covering the entire
space, width-wise and length-wise, in just three steps. At another
place the Rig-Veda acclaims that he spans the entire universe with
three strides, with two of which he covers the visible space, and
with the third, which the Rig-Veda designates as 'Parama-pada',
the space to which human eye does not have access. Thus, whatever
the Rig-Vedic perception, Vishnu pervades all spaces, the 'seen'
and the 'unseen'. The Vedas perceived some unmanifest levels also
of other gods, especially of Agni that exists on a plane to which
the human mind does not have access. But, such super-existence
apart, the Rig-Veda weaves the veil of mysticism only around
Vishnu, not barring the human mind from reaching it but rather
allowing it to lift the veil and develop its own concept of him.
Vishnu In Later Vedic Literature
Hence, it is not strange that in later Vedic literature -
Samhitas, Brahmins and Upanishads, this subsidiary god of the
Rig-Veda emerges as the most powerful divinity of the Vedic
pantheon. The Shatpatha Brahman (14.1.1) illustrates through a
myth how Vishnu attained such superior position. Once all gods
performed a yajna stipulating that whoever accomplished it first
would have supremacy over all other gods. Vishnu did it and was
worshipped by all as the supreme of all gods. Tetreya Aranyaka
(5.1. 1-7) gives to the myth of his supremacy a different
dimension. It narrates that once Vishnu's bow broke and with it
broke his head. This broken head, with enormous lustre, took the
form of the sun. Later, Ashwins - a class of celestial beings,
re-planted this broken head on his torso. Thereafter Vishnu
emerged as the supreme master of all three worlds. Shatpatha and
Etareya Brahmans (1.2.5 and 6.15) recount further how Vishnu
rescued all gods from demons and emerged as their natural
superior. Once demons defeated gods and occupied their habitation,
the world. The demons began breaking the land in fragments. This
endangered its very existence. Gods approached Vishnu for setting
the world free from demons. Vishnu transformed into a dwarf -
Vamana, and went to the demon king. He asked the demon king for a
piece of land measuring just three steps. When the prayer was
granted, Vishnu magnified his form into cosmic dimensions so much
so that in three steps he measured not merely the three worlds but
also the Vedas and Vak, that is, all known and spoken. The Puranas
modified the legend a little. The Vamana, a Brahmin, spanned in
his cosmic magnification all three worlds in two steps and with
the third pushed the demon king into the nether world. The Puranas
designated this form of Vishnu as Vishnu-kranta, Tri-Vikram or
Vikranta. This is one of his most widely represented forms in early sculptures.
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Whatever Vishnu's form in these later texts, the Rig-Veda
contained the initial roots of such forms. Except Vishnu, all
other gods that the Vedas personalized represented one of the
manifest forms of nature, the sun, fire, wind, rain etc. Such
personalization was unnatural and unconvincing, for one might
perceive some kind of divinity in these forms of nature but not
the face of man in any of them. On the contrary, personalization
of Vishnu was more natural and convincing; obviously because the
Vedas did not ever identify him with an otherwise manifest form.
Rather, a concept of mind as he was, the Vedas, the Rig-Veda in
particular, chose to visualize him in a human form. The Rig-Vedic
mysticism begins from here. It talks of Vishnu as one would talk
of a man but at the same time allows him to walk out of the man's
frame and vests in him unique divinity. As for Vishnu, he
sometimes appears to be, but at other time, one beyond being, one
beyond the entire manifest world.
This shift from the abstract or a nature-manifesting solar deity
to one perceived anthropomorphically was effected partly out of
the efforts of concretizing the Rig-Vedic mysticism and partly
being necessitated by the Vedic worship-cult involving yajna as an
essential aspect of day's routine that had become by now quite methodical.
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An anthropomorphic deity was better suited for presiding over such
yajnas. This seems to have effected the shift from the solar god
to a yajna-deity. Subordinated to Vishnu other Vedic gods did not
have their prior status. They were sometimes yet personalized but
either as subsidiary deities or as Dikpalas - guardians of
directions, etc. Vishnu, other than Rudra-Shiva, was the only
major personal god of this era and ever after. Rudra-Shiva was a
god with wrathful nature worshipped mostly for preventing him from
inflicting his wrath. The massive-bodied Vishnu was contrarily
all-pervading and protective. Hence, in Vedic cult he soon had an
enormous presence and with it the Vedic worship had two separate
sects, the Shaivites and the Vaishnavite.
Vishnu's Puranic Transformation And Iconographic Vision In Indian Art
The Puranas pursued broadly the same line as the later Vedic texts
in regard to Vishnu's form and status in the pantheon. However,
while the Vedic mysticism was still the dominant spirit of later
Vedic texts it was largely missing in Puranas. Instead, in Puranas
he emerged with far greater divine aura combined with such
personal attributes - invincibility, stateliness, anatomy of a
warrior, appearance and grace of a king, which made him more the
supreme commander of the world rather than an abstract principle
manifest. Hundreds of hymns in these Puranic texts lauded not
merely his appearance - a robust build, oceanic blue complexion
and figural distinction, or divinity, magnificence, or lustre but
also his brilliant costume, precious jewels, special crown, and
celestial flowers that he wore. Despite that he was perceived as
possessing great majesty such as should the Lord of the world in
command of all cosmic regions and all elements and a multi-armed
anatomy, these texts brought to mind such personalized picture of
Vishnu as of one's next-door neighbor. Thus, the supreme monarch
but with great personal touch Vishnu emerged as the foremost
guardian and protector. This Vishnu was both, the benevolent
boon-giver and the supreme deity of yajna as also the slayer of
demons and the protector of the earth and its inhabitants. The
Devi Bhagavata acclaims Vishnu to have fought a thousand battles
against 'asuras' - demons. Not merely the supreme divinity, this
Vishnu was also the supreme model of life manifesting both, the
highest principles of faith and the brightest colors of culture.
This Puranic personalization of Vishnu gives to Indian art -
sculpture and painting, a uniform, elaborate and well defined
iconography. His anatomy and other aspects apart, Puranas also
associated with him some attributes, body-postures and gestures of
hands, all revealing some kind of symbolism or some of his related
mythical contexts. The two of his postures are more usual; one as
standing, and other as reclining. His standing posture with a
forward thrust has Vedic connotations. It is the Rig-Vedic form of
Vishnu as revealed in epithets like 'urugaya', 'urukrama' or
'tri-patha', already discussed before. This is the most usual form
of Vishnu's sanctum idols or votive iconography.
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The other posture relates to the myth representing him reclining
on the coils of serpent Shesh in the ocean of milk. In this form
he is Nara, the cosmic ocean which spread everywhere before the
creation of the universe. As he moves over these waters of cosmic
oceans he is Narayana, 'one who moves in water'.
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His seated postures are rare except sometimes as in his
manifestation as Yoga-Narayana, or in shrines like one at Badrinatha.
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His Tri-Vikram form, representing him with one of his legs shot
into the sky or onto the face of the demon king Bali, a
representation of the myth of spanning the universe in three
strides, has also been sculpted on temples' walls.
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Lintels of early Vishnu temples and sometimes even Shaiva, usually
carry the image of Vishnu riding his mount Garuda. In Dasavatara
panels on the door-frames of early temples too the Garudaruda -
Garuda-mounted Vishnu, is usually the central figure.
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He has been usually conceived with four arms, but sometimes also
with six or eight carrying in them various attributes - a conch,
lotus, mace, goad, disc, rod, sword, bow among others. Conch was a
later addition, which was included in his attributes after his
incarnation as Krishna he eliminated Shakhasura - the demon
seeking refuge in a conch. The usual gestures of his hands are
abhaya - fearlessness, and varada - benevolence. He has been
conceived and represented as blue complexioned wearing a yellow
antariya - unstitched length of textile, and rich lustrous jewels.
His towering gems-studded crown and a garland of fresh Parijata
flowers of celestial origin, worn down to ankles, are other
exclusive features of his iconography and hence of his identity.
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In his cosmic magnification - Vishva-rupa, Vishnu has a different
set of iconography. Vishva-rupa is only Vishnu's transform. Brahma
did not have such magnification. Himself being the cosmos
Vishva-rupa was irrelevant in Shiva's context. As the creation
sustains and prevails in Vishnu, his form is required to magnify
to assimilate in it the vision of the world.
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Vishnu's Incarnations And Transforms
Vishnu was initially a cosmic presence without a manifest form or
appearance. Hence, the seers, right from the Vedic days to the
days of Puranas, wove around him, on one hand, a form of his own,
and on the other, discovered in any being, a man or animal, which
they found containing Vishnu-like dimensional width and
magnanimity, a transform of Vishnu or his incarnation.
Transformation is a shift from one form to the other in the same
birth, while incarnation is a form attained in other birth.
Ordinarily, transform and incarnation are two different things but
in Vaishnava context both are largely identical. Vishnu enters
into another form but without subjecting himself to birth and
death. In some of the beings, such as the mythical Matsya - Great
Fish, Kurma - Tortoise, or Varaha - Boar, popularly revered as his
incarnations, Vishnu had merely an elemental presence. They were
only his 'anshavataras' - part-incarnations, each performing one
divine act having cosmic magnitude. Narsimha and Vamana, his two
other incarnations, were perhaps more decisively only his
transforms. Their related myths in the Shatpatha Brahman represent
just their emergence, neither their birth nor parentage. Mysticism
enshrouded the events of births also of his other incarnations,
Parasurama, Rama, Krishna, Balarama, or Buddha. They had parents,
babyhood, growth, manhood and a full life and a chain of events
but their related myths, ambiguous as they are at least in regard
to the circumstances of their births, incline to suggest that
their emergence was hardly the outcome of a biological process.
Though the multiplicity of his incarnated forms, ranging from
animals to man, suggestive of Vishnu's elemental presence in all
things, has undertones of Rig-Vedic mysticism, the proper
incarnation cult has its beginning in Brahmans. At least three
forms, Vamana who redeemed the world from the demon Bali, Matsya,
the great fish that rescued Manu from high tides of the Great Deluge,
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and Varaha, boar, that dragged back the earth from deep waters and
rescued her, occur in these later Vedic texts.
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The Mahabharata identifies Vishnu as Krishna when he shows his
cosmic form to Arjuna. However, it is in Puranas that the theory
of incarnations fully explodes. Each of Vishnu-related Puranas
comes out with its own list of his incarnations, totaling in
thousands. However, these are two sets that have greater
unanimity. According to one tradition the number of his
incarnations is twenty-four, while under another, it is ten. His
Dasavatara - ten incarnations, comprise the theme of Indian art -
sculptures, at least since Gupta period in fifth-sixth century.
These ten incarnations are Matsya, Kurma, Varah, Narsimha, Vamana,
Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Balarama and Kalki.
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The Vishnu Purana and some other texts acclaim Buddha, not
Balarama, as his ninth incarnation. According to many texts,
Kalki, the tenth incarnation, has to incarnate in Kaliyuga, the
present eon. Around the end of this eon righteousness would turn
into unrighteousness, light, into darkness, good, into evil,
virtues, into vices, believers, into profanes, community of man,
into thieves and evil doers, and the faith in God would be lost.
Then Kalki would emerge riding the horse Devadatta - one given by
gods, and with this the Kaliyuga would end.
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However as Venkateshvara, Vishnu has at least one such form which
is not his incarnation.
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Vishnu's south Indian devotees consider Venkateshvara as Vishnu's
proto-form. Even if this position is unacceptable, Venkateshvara,
a manifestation of Vishnu, might be termed as his transform or
re-emergence. Vishnu is believed to have abandoned Baikuntha and
migrated to Tirumala, a hill-range in south India having serpent
Shesh-like form and hence designated as Sheshachala.
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The related myth is variously narrated. However, the one in the
Padma Purana is better known. As it has it, gods once fell into a
dispute for settling which they deputed sage Bhragu. For seeking
their guidance Bhragu went to Great Trio. Shiva, engaged in
amorous act with Parvati, did not pay attention to him. Brahma
behaved almost rudely, but Bhragu lost his temper when he found
Vishnu asleep. The angry sage hit him on his chest with his leg,
which left on it the impression of his foot that as Shrivatsa adds
another element in his iconography. Vishnu, instead of punishing
the sage, only apologized for being asleep. Lakshmi who was lying
on his side felt insulted and in fury abandoned Vishnu and his
Baikuntha. Unable to bear separation Vishnu also left Baikuntha
and migrated to Tirumala hill on the earth. After eons of
repentance and yearning one day Vishnu realized that like a lotus
Lakshmi was sprouting within him and thus the two were re-united.
Tirumala is thus Vishnu's only abode where he permanently settled
after he had abandoned Baikuntha, his heavenly abode. His presence
here is considered thus full and absolute.
Vishnu's Exploits
Except that he is one who spans the earth, known and unknown
spaces in three steps, the Rig-Veda does not recount any of his
exploits. With his transformation as the god of yajna his role
widens in later Vedic texts. Now also as Vamana, Matsya and Varaha
he indulges in more personalized kind of acts. In Puranas his form
is almost concretized and so his exploits against demons,
Hayagriva, Madhu and Kaitabha, Andhaka, Vritrasura, Nemi, Sumali,
Malyavan among others. He fights against mighty demons Madhu and
Kaitabha for ages before he is able to kill them.
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The myth of annihilation of Madhu and Kaitabha appeared first in
the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. Later, with a few variations,
it appeared in the Devi Bhagavata Purana. As goes the myth, after
the Great Deluge Mahavishnu lay asleep on the water's surface.
Long after from his navel grew a lotus, out of which subsequently
emerged Brahma. Staying in the lotus he engaged himself in
meditation and in reciting Vedas. Meanwhile some ear-wax emitted
from the ears of Mahavishnu and from it were born two demons,
named Madhu and Kaitabha. According to the Mahabharata, Madhu and
Kaitabha were born from two drops of water that Mahavishnu had
created in the lotus. One of the two drops was sweet like
Madhu -honey, and hence, Madhu, the name of the demon born of it.
He stood for Tamas - darkness, one of the three attributes of
cosmos. The other drop was hard. From this drop was born Kaitabha
representing Rajas - activity.
Born and grown up in water Madhu and Kaitabha had exceptional
power to walk on water's surface and under it, which had made them
arrogant and proud. They wondered how this big flood came into
being. One day, Devi appeared and taught them the 'Vagbija
mantra - hymn of the origin of logos. Reciting the hymn they
performed Devi's worship for a thousand years. Appeased by their
worship Devi appeared and told them to ask whatever they desired.
They wished that they should die in the manner they chose. The
wish was granted. Their arrogance now multiplied. One day, they
stole Brahma's Vedas and with them hid in the nether world. Brahma
went after them but tortured and frightened by them came back. He
went to Mahavishnu and sought his help in restoring Vedas.
Mahavishnu went to Madhu and Kaitabha but they refused to return
the scriptures. Mahavishnu raised arms against them but it yielded
no result. Under a strategy, when one fought with him the other
rested and thus they tired Mahavishnu who was battling
non-stopped. It continued for a thousand years. Finally, Devi
appeared and revealed that they would not be killed unless they
themselves disclosed the manner by which they could be killed.
Mahavishnu feigned to give up arms and lauded the demons for their
great valor. He told that he would grant them anything they
wished. As anticipated, the demons laughed and said that they were
superior to him and hence he should ask them whatever he wanted
from them. Mahavishnu instantly said that he wished to kill them
and asked them to grant this wish. With no other option left, they
granted his wish but with the condition that he could kill them
but not inside the water. Mahavishnu instantly expanded his thighs
so far that like earth they reached above water. The demons
expanded their bodies many more times leaving waters far below.
Vishnu expanded his thighs further, caught hold of the demons,
held them on his thighs and cut their throats with his disc.
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Mahavishnu likewise eliminated Hayagriva, the son of
Kashyapaprajapati by his demon wife Denu, for torturing good
people and destroying their yajnas, Anthaka, the notorious
minister of the demon king Mahisha, Vratasura, the son of
Prajapati Twasta born of his wrath, Sumali, the son of
Patalaravana, Malyavan, the son of demon Sukesha and brother of
Mali and Sumali, Nemi, the head of the demons of Nemi clan, and
Rahu, the notorious planet. Rahu was cut into two parts by
Mahavishnu with his disc. As the related myth has it, the
incessantly warring gods and demons once reached an accord under
which they agreed to churn ocean and discover nectar that the
ocean contained. After the nectar was found in the course of
churning the demons rushed to snatch it. Fearing that the world
would be destroyed if it fell into the hands of demons, gods were
reluctant to let it pass into their hands. And hence, a fearful
battle ensued for its custody. When arms did not yield result,
Vishnu resorted to other options. He transformed himself into
Mohini, the temptress. All demons rushed to obtain her. Meanwhile
gods disappeared with the pot of nectar, and just after them,
Mohini. They reached Baikuntha and to bar entry of any demon put
the Sun and the Moon on guard. However, Rahu in disguise succeeded
in entering. But, on being detected by Moon Mahavishnu discharged
on him his disc and cut him into two pieces.
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This article by Prof. P.C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet
===========================================
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For Further Study
----------------------------------------
Rig-Veda Samhita - edited by F. Maxmuller; English translation by H. H. Wilson, Poona.
Shatpatha Brahmana - edited by Albert Waver, Leipzig, 1924.
Mahabharata - Gita Press, Gorakhpur; Critical Edition, Poona;
English translation by Pratap Chandra Rai, Calcutta.
Valmiki Ramayana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1976.
Padmapurana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1981
Brahmavaivartapurana - Hindi Sahitya Sammelana Prayaga, Bombay, 1935
Bhagavata Purana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1961.
Markandeya Purana (Devi-Mahatmya) - Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1972
Vishnupurana - Bombay, 1889; Gita Press, Gorakhpur, 1980.
Vishnudharmottarapurana - Bombay, 1912; English translation by
Priyabala Shah, Baroda, 1961
Etareya Brahman - Gita Press, Gorakhpur
Devi Bhagavata - Gita Press, Gorakhpur
Harivansha Purana - Gita Press, Gorakhpur
Dr. Daljeet and P. C. Jain - Indian Miniature Painting
- Krishna : Raga se Viraga Tak
Brajesh Krishna - The Art under the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Delhi
Suvira Jaiswal - Origins and Development of Vaishnavism
D. O. Flaherty - Hindu Myths
Marta Jakimowicz-Shah - Metamorphosis of Indian Gods
Veronica Ions - Indian Mythology
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